JILPT Research Report No.229
Psychology of Workers in the Process of Job Separation: An Interview Study by Means of Cognitive Task Analysis

April 1, 2024

Summary

Research Objective

The purpose of this study is to analyze the psychological processes involved in the transition from unemployment to re-employment from the perspective of the employment relationship, and to develop a theoretical framework for providing consistent support to unemployed workers. Specifically, the aim is to develop employment support techniques that can be used in career counseling, job counseling and placement services, and training programs to support job search activities, including outplacement seminars. Throughout the process, a practical and theoretical approach will be explored.

Below is a clarification of the concept of the employment relationship used in this study.

"Employment is a voluntary, but institutionally regulated, contractual exchange relationship, between two parties, one of whom who wishes to sell, and the other wishes to buy, work, usually for money, but it could be for goods or services" (Fryer and Payne 1986, p236).

In this definition, a particular employment relationship is understood in terms of the relationship between the employer's demand for labor services and the worker's willingness to supply. Specifically, the worker is willing to supply, or “sell,” their own labor services. On the other hand, the employer has a demand for labor services necessary to carry out business activities. In other words, the employer wants to “buy” them. In short, this definition states that an employment relationship is established through a contractual exchange relationship based on the presence of the worker’s willingness to supply and demand from the employer. This is illustrated graphically in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Perception of the employment relationship

Research Method

As a first step in the research, an online interview survey was conducted with 32 unemployed workers based on the objectives of this study. In the interviews, the cognitive task analysis method was used to explore in depth the psychology of workers in the process of leaving their jobs. This method analyzes people's judgment and decision-making processes when performing a practical task or job (JILPT 2016). Using this technique, we asked interview participants to recall events they experienced during the job separation process and to describe in detail their feelings and thoughts at the time.

After excluding one participant whose responses did not conform to the interview procedures, the verbatim transcripts of the 31 cases obtained from the interview were converted into texts based on the events recalled by the participants and their feelings at the time of the events, and 653 items that summarize the situation identified for each event in the job separation process (hereafter referred to as "construal index") were created. Each case was then analyzed from the following three perspectives, based on the employment relationship framework shown in Figure 1, with a particular focus on the construal index related to the situation before and after the most recent separation from employment.

1. Perception of the demand: How do workers perceive the demand for their own labor services from employers?
2. Perception of the supply: How do workers perceive the supply of their own labor services?
3. Perception of the supply and demand adjustment: How do workers perceive the gap between supply and demand and how do they respond to it?

The attributes (basic characteristics) for the 31 participants in the analysis are outlined in Table 1.

Table 1. Basic characteristics for the participants

Key Findings

Job separation process model

31 cases were analyzed to identify common elements in the change in each participant's perception of the employment relationship during the job separation process. Based on these results, we constructed a job separation process model perceived by workers in a particular employment relationship as shown in Figure 2 using two axes: presence or absence of the demand for labor services from the employers, and presence or absence of the workers’ willingness to supply their services.

According to this model, the perception of being “unemployed" arises from the fact that even if workers try to adjust the gap between the demand for their own labor services and the willingness to supply them, the lack of either demand or willingness to supply results in a state of imbalance, where equilibrium in the employment relationship cannot be maintained.

Figure 2. Job separation process model

Two patterns leading to unemployment: Elimination of demand-type and elimination of willingness to supply-type

In the job separation process model, there are two patterns of imbalances in the employment relationship that lead to the perception of unemployment. One is when there is "no demand" for labor services from the employer, but the worker is willing to supply them. The other is a case where there is a demand for labor services from the employer, but the worker is "unwilling" to supply them. The former is referred to as “elimination of demand-type unemployment” and the latter as “elimination of willingness to supply-type unemployment.” Using this model, 31 cases were classified, resulting in 19 cases corresponding to elimination of demand-type unemployment and 12 cases corresponding to elimination of willingness to supply-type unemployment as a job separation process.

• Elimination of demand-type

  Elimination of demand-type can be divided into four types: (1) Unemployment as a result of changes in management strategy or business operations (Case 1, Case 3, Case 11, Case 15, Case 16 and Case 20), (2) Unemployment due to a downturn in business activity or bankruptcy (Case 4 and Case 25), (3) Unemployment due to workers' inability to perform their duties or their inadequate performance (Case 5 and Case 22), and (4) Unemployment due to expiration of contract or leave of absence (Case 7, Case 9, Case 10, Case 12, Case 17, Case 21, Case 23, Case 29 and Case 30). In the cases of elimination of demand-type unemployment, the loss of demand for labor services on the part of employers results in the perception of unemployment.

• Elimination of willingness to supply-type

  Elimination of willingness to supply-type can also be divided into four types: (1) Unemployment due to health problems (Case 2, Case 8 and Case 13), (2) Unemployment due to prioritization of family life over work (Case 6, Case 14, Case 18 and Case 19), (3) Unemployment due to concerns about the company's business prospects (Case 24 and Case 26), and (4) Unemployment due to problems in the work environment (Case 27, Case 28 and Case 31).

• Commonalities between elimination of demand-type and elimination of willingness to supply-type

  In both elimination of demand-type and elimination of willingness to supply-type cases, workers tend to place more emphasis on the impact of the employers’ demand for labor services on their job separation than on their own willingness to supply.

  First, in the elimination of demand-type, the disappearance of the demand for labor services from employers to workers is the cause of their perception of unemployment. Even in the case of elimination of willingness to supply-type, in which the perception of unemployment is caused by the elimination of willingness to supply, it can be seen as a problem of adaptation to the demand for labor services.

  As to (1) and (2) of elimination of willingness to supply-type, with the exception of “a female clerical worker in her 40s who decided to resign for personal reasons to address her child’s non-attendance at school” (Case 6), there is a perception that the overload of labor services demanded by their employers caused health problems or difficulties in balancing work and family life, leading to unemployment.

  In Case 6, based on her past experience, the worker suggests her disbelief that the company would do nothing for her if she had a tough time or a physical breakdown. This case also suggests that the demand for overburdened labor services, which created mistrust, was behind her resignation.

  On the other hand, for (3) and (4) of the elimination of willingness to supply-type, the excessive demand for labor services causes workers to feel insecure about the company's structure and management policies (Case 24 and Case 26), or to suffer from mental illness or poor health due to problems in the work environment (Case 27, Case 28 and Case 31), and this results in the loss of willingness to supply, leading to the perception of unemployment.

Psychology of workers' attempts to adapt to the demand for labor services

The demand for labor services from employers to workers may fluctuate. Similarly, workers themselves may fluctuate in their willingness to supply labor services depending on their personal circumstances such as family or health problems, or the work environment such as interpersonal relationships.

31 case studies reveal that when the demand for labor services and the willingness to supply fluctuate and a gap arises between the two, workers tend to try to fill this gap and maintain an equilibrium in the employment relationship. In this equilibrium state, workers basically try to maintain the equilibrium state by adapting to the employers’ demand for labor services. The following are examples of the workers’ psychology based on the construal index:

First is consideration for co-workers (Case 2 and Case 12). While workers feel that their employer's demand for labor services is a heavy burden, they understand that their resignation will create additional work for their remaining co-workers. Therefore, they want to avoid inconveniencing them.

Second is the decision to continue working due to the lack of replacement (Case 13 and Case 18). Whereas the workers want to leave the company, they find it difficult to do so because there is no one to take over their responsibilities.

Third is a sense of responsibility for the work (Case 17, Case 24 and Case 31). Even in situations where it is difficult to meet the employers' demand for labor services, workers feel that they have a responsibility to perform their work and give priority to completing the work. This sense of responsibility stems from the recognition that as a wage earner they cannot abandon their duties in the middle of a job, and from the obligation to perform the work based on the employment contract with the employer, which includes this recognition.

Fourth, it is a debt of gratitude to the company (Case 28 and Case 31). Even when workers want to resign, they may feel guilty about asking for their resignation because they are grateful for the benefits they have received from the company such as employment and training.

Fifth is the expectation of one's own advancement and promotion (Case 28). Even if workers are dissatisfied with the demand from the employers, they accept the demand rather than reject it in view of its impact on their future career advancement or promotion potential.

Sixth, to maintain their livelihoods (Case 8 and Case19). Even in situations where it is difficult for workers to continue working in accordance with their employers’ demand, they believe that they cannot choose to leave the company in order to support themselves and their families’ livelihoods.

Among workers' psychological factors, especially the fifth, expectations of career advancement and promotion, and the sixth, maintenance of livelihood, are strongly related to workers' willingness to supply. Excluding these, the sense of responsibility and the depth of involvement in the organization and business motivate workers to meet the demand from their employers.

Workers' sense of helplessness

Through the examination of 31 case studies, this report examines the behavioral tendencies of workers when they are faced with a sudden change or disappearance of demand for their labor services, or when they are overworked. In particular, even when workers recognize a gap between the demand and their own willingness to supply, they tend to resign without communicating their requests and opinions to the employer, or actively inquiring about the reasons and causes of the gap in order to make adjustments. This is influenced by a sense of helplessness in which workers feel that their demand for labor services will not change even if they discuss the issue with their employers. From the construal index, we can infer that the following five psychological factors are involved in the background of this feeling of helplessness:

First is acceptance of the employer’s business decisions (Case 1, Case 16, and Case 20). This refers to the attitude of workers to accept the employer's business judgment or organizational decision regarding the demand for labor services, based on their understanding of the circumstances behind the decision. What lies behind the perception and acceptance of the business decisions of the employer, there is a sense of helplessness on the part of the workers. It is evident that workers as individuals feel that they have no influence in the face of organizational decisions and policies that transcend the individual.

Second is giving up on settlement through discussion with the employer (Case 3, Case 10, and Case 20). The worker is dissatisfied with the employer's decision regarding the demand for labor services, but sees no benefit in further discussion and anticipates no possibility of settlement through negotiation. This is also an indication that workers feel that their bargaining power is limited.

Third is to attribute the cause of changes in the demand for labor services to individual factors such as employers (Case 4, Case 14, Case 21). In social psychology, the process of determining the cause of an event or behavior is called causal attribution. From the perspective of causal attribution, this means that workers see problems such as abuse of power in the workplace (known as “power harassment” in Japan) and encouragement of retirement as caused by the personality and behavioral tendencies of individuals such as employers. As a result, they feel helpless in the belief that “no matter how much they talk to the employer, there will be no change” because the problem is the individual's personality and behavioral tendencies.

Fourth, workers recognize their own lack of ability (Case 5 and Case11). They realize that they are unable to meet the employer's demand for labor services with their own skills and efforts. For example, they feel that they are an insufficient or even unnecessary labor force for the company. This is another manifestation of helplessness.

Fifth, workers adapt to the implicit understanding of the workplace (Case 13 and Case 31). They are influenced by the workplace atmosphere and take it for granted that they will meet the employer’s demand for labor services, even if it is difficult for them to do so. They are in a situation where they are expected to conform to the tacit norms that are considered "normal" in the workplace and to meet the demand for overburdened labor services that exceed their own intentions and abilities. This adaptation and conformity to the tacit understanding of the workplace results in workers feeling helpless.

Key topic for future research

Further validation of the job separation process model is needed as a key topic for future research. The job separation process model in this report is a model derived from the 31 case studies in this study, and the robustness of the model needs to be confirmed using larger data sets. A particular problem with this study is that none of the participants in this study were workers changing jobs to advance their careers. An important issue for generalizing the model is to compare it with the psychology of workers who actively changed jobs during their employment but became unemployed.

Policy Implications

The examination of the 31 cases suggests that regardless of the pattern of the job separation process (including elimination of demand-type and elimination of willingness to supply-type), the perception of unemployment was influenced by changes or disappearance of the demand for labor services such as business downturns, company restructuring, and problems in the work environment such as abuse of power in the workplace. The experience of unemployment may also have fostered a sense of helplessness among workers who were unable to meet the demand for labor services.

Strategies that workers can adopt include responding flexibly to fluctuations in employers' demand for labor services and controlling the employment relationship. To do this, workers need to adjust their own willingness to supply labor services appropriately. Employers try to control the willingness to supply labor by setting wages in response to the demand for labor services. In contrast, workers have no direct means of controlling the employer's demand for labor services. They can indirectly influence the demand for labor services by adjusting the quality and quantity of their own labor.

Therefore, in job counseling and placement services, it is very important to help workers to recognize and verbalize their own willingness to supply labor services, and to be able to see the employers’ demand for labor services from their own point of view.

Career counseling also helps workers become aware of their mid- to long-term career goals so that they can rationally consider whether meeting their employer's demand for labor services is beneficial to their own career formation.

In outplacement seminars, it is also important to help workers to deepen their understanding of the labor services they are willing to supply and the long-term prospects for their careers. In addition to negotiating skills with employers, it is necessary to focus on know-how to strengthen the flexibility and patience needed in the negotiation process to properly adjust the equilibrium between the demand for labor services and the willingness to supply them.

Through these approaches, workers will be able to determine the equilibrium point between the labor services they wish to supply and the demand for labor services required by employers. This is expected to encourage workers to proactively engage in the construction of the employment relationships and career formation they desire. This effort by workers can promote communication with employers and contribute to the revitalization of the labor market as a whole.

Contents

JILPT Research Report No.229, full text (PDF:9.3MB) [in Japanese]

Category

Employment/Unemployment, Career guidance/job information

Research Period

FY2022-2023

Researchers (affiliation is at the time of writing〉

KAYANO Jun

Research Director, Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training

NISHIGAKI Hanae

Research Assistant, Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training

For Citation

JILPT. 2024. Rishoku katei ni okeru rodosha no shinri: Ninchiteki tasuku bunseki wo oyo shita intabyu chosa [Psychology of Workers in the Process of Job Separation: An Interview Study by Means of Cognitive Task Analysis]. JILPT Research Report No. 229. The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and Training (JILPT).

Related Research

• JILPT Research Material Series No. 261, Job Search with Perseverance and Resilience: Research on Job Search Assistance for Jobseekers in Unemployment (2022).
• JILPT Research Material Series No. 241, Research on Job Search Interventions: Self-Directed Job Search (2021).
• JILPT Research Report No.203, Research on Job Search Interventions: Examination of the Feasibility of a Cyclical Self-Regulatory Model of Job Search Process Quality (2020).
• Training Implementation Manual Ver.1.0: “Here Are Key Points! Mindset of Job Search: In Pursuit of Desired Jobs” (2019).
• JILPT Research Report No.182, Research and Development of the “Workshop for Visualization of Vocational Counseling Skills―‘Kan’ (hunch) and ‘Kotsu’ (knack)”: Training Research that Incorporates Cognitive Task Analysis (2016).

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